Mod 7: Bihar Through Foreign Eyes — Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-tsing & Tibetan Visitors
Concept
7.1 School Level — Why outsiders matter, and Megasthenes
🏫 School Level · NCERT Class 6–12 History · clear basics
- School
- Class 10+2
- BPSC
- UPSC
- Explain why foreign accounts are valuable for Bihar’s history.
- Place the four main visitors — Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, Xuanzang, I-tsing — in correct order.
- Explain what the Indica is and how it survives.
- Describe Palibothra (Pataliputra) as Megasthenes saw it.
- Describe his picture of society and administration — and the Greek envoys after him.
Around 300 BCE a Greek diplomat lives in a city on the Ganga with timber walls, hundreds of towers and dozens of gates. He calls the city “Palibothra” and the river beside it “Erannoboas”. Where is he, and whose court is he at?
Show answer
He is Megasthenes, at Pataliputra (Patna), the court of Chandragupta Maurya. “Erannoboas” is the Greek name for the Son river.
Indian texts tell us a lot, but they rarely give exact dates, and they speak from inside. A foreign visitor brings two gifts: an outside view, and a link to a calendar we already know.
| Gift | Example |
|---|---|
| Dating anchor | Greek sources call Chandragupta “Sandrokottos” and link him to Alexander and Seleucus → his date (late 4th century BCE) is fixed |
| Eyewitness detail | Timber walls of Pataliputra; daily life at Nalanda |
| Outside view | They notice what Indians took for granted — customs, food, institutions |
| Help in rediscovery | Xuanzang’s distances later guided archaeologists to Nalanda and other sites |
CheckQuick check: Give two reasons why foreign accounts are valuable.
They provide dating anchors and eyewitness detail (also an outside view and help in locating sites).
UPSC asked this exact chronology question in 1999. If you remember one thing today, remember this order.
- c. 302–298 BCE
Megasthenes (Greek) — envoy of Seleucus I at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, Pataliputra. - 399–414 CE
Fa-Hien (Faxian) (Chinese) — in Gupta times, under Chandragupta II. - 629–645 CE
Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) (Chinese) — age of Harsha; long stay at Nalanda. - 671–695 CE
I-tsing (Yijing) (Chinese) — about ten years at Nalanda. - 13th century onward
Tibetan visitors such as Dharmasvamin (1234–36) — Nalanda’s last days.
CheckQuick check: Put these in order — I-tsing, Megasthenes, Xuanzang, Fa-Hien.
Megasthenes → Fa-Hien → Xuanzang → I-tsing.
Here is a surprise: Megasthenes’ book is lost. Not a single copy survives. So how do we know what he wrote?
- Megasthenes was sent by Seleucus I Nicator to Chandragupta’s court after their treaty (c. 303 BCE).
- He wrote the Indica, a Greek account of India.
- The original is lost; we know it only from quotations by later writers — Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus and Pliny.
- So every “Megasthenes says” is really “a later writer says Megasthenes said”.
CheckQuick check: Name two writers through whom the Indica survives.
Any two of Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus, Pliny.
Picture the largest city Megasthenes had ever seen. Here is what the later writers report from his book.
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Location | Where the Erannoboas (Son) meets the Ganga |
| Shape and size | A long parallelogram — about 80 stadia long and 15 wide (Strabo) |
| Walls | A timber wall with loopholes for archers |
| Towers and gates | 570 towers and 64 gates (Arrian) |
| Defence | A deep, wide ditch in front, also used for drainage |
| Palace | Mainly of wood, splendid enough to rival Persian palaces (later writers) |
He says the wall was wooden. At Bulandibagh in Patna, archaeologists uncovered a long timber palisade. At Kumrahar, a Mauryan pillared hall was found. The outsider’s description and the excavations agree — a classic example of triangulation (Mod 6).
CheckQuick check: How many towers and gates does Arrian (quoting Megasthenes) give for Palibothra?
570 towers and 64 gates.
Megasthenes also tried to describe Indian society and government. Some of it is sharp, some of it confused — that is what makes it interesting.
| Class | Note |
|---|---|
| Philosophers | Few but honoured |
| Farmers | Most numerous; left in peace even during war |
| Herdsmen and hunters | Live outside towns |
| Artisans and traders | Craftsmen, merchants |
| Soldiers | Paid by the state |
| Overseers (inspectors) | Report to the king |
| Councillors | Advise the king; fill high offices |
- City administration: Pataliputra run by six boards of five members each — for industry, foreigners, births and deaths, trade, manufactures and taxes (Strabo).
- Army: NCERT Class 12 notes his mention of a committee with six sub-committees to coordinate military activity.
- Later Greek envoys: Deimachus came to Bindusara; Dionysius was sent by Ptolemy II of Egypt.
Megasthenes’ “seven classes” do not match the four varnas. Does that make him wrong?
Show answer
He was describing occupational groups he observed, not the Brahmanical varna theory. His list is an outsider’s classification — useful because it shows how society looked to a foreigner, but not a technical account of caste.
He is the first whose detailed account of Bihar survives (in fragments). Earlier Persians and Greeks knew of India, but Megasthenes is the first outsider to describe Pataliputra in detail.
Partly. Different later writers quote it in slightly different ways, and they may have added or changed things. Where the quotations agree with archaeology (the timber wall), we trust them more.
Yes, he is reported to have said so — but this is generally considered a misunderstanding; Indian texts do mention dasas. It shows the limits of an outsider’s view.
“My Friend Hiuen Is” → Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-tsing
Order of visitors: M → F → H → I.
Palibothra numbers: “570 towers, 64 gates” — say “five-seven-zero, six-four”.
Greek name-pairs: Palibothra–Patna, Erannoboas–Son, Sandrokottos–Chandragupta.
1 markWho wrote the Indica?
Megasthenes.
1 markWhat did the Greeks call Pataliputra?
Palibothra.
1 markHow many classes of people did Megasthenes describe?
Seven.
3 marksDescribe Pataliputra as reported from Megasthenes.
- At the meeting of the Ganga and the Erannoboas (Son).
- A long parallelogram with a timber wall and loopholes for archers.
- 570 towers and 64 gates, with a deep ditch in front.
- A wooden palace; the city run by six boards of five members each.
3 marksWhy must historians use Megasthenes carefully?
His Indica is lost and survives only in later quotations; he misunderstood some customs (for example, saying there were no slaves); and his seven classes reflect an outsider’s view rather than Indian social theory. So his account is checked against Indian texts and archaeology.
PYQ pattern Megasthenes was the envoy of which ruler at the court of Chandragupta Maurya?
- (a) Alexander
- (b) Seleucus I Nicator
- (c) Antiochus I
- (d) Ptolemy II
Show answer
(b) Seleucus I Nicator.
PYQ pattern According to Megasthenes, the city of Pataliputra was administered by:
- (a) A single governor
- (b) Four councils
- (c) Six boards of five members each
- (d) The Buddhist sangha
Show answer
(c) Six boards of five members each.
MCQ The Greek envoy Deimachus came to the court of:
- (a) Bindusara
- (b) Chandragupta Maurya
- (c) Ashoka
- (d) Dhana Nanda
Show answer
(a) Bindusara.
UPSC 1999 Arrange the following in chronological order: I. Fa-Hien II. I-tsing III. Megasthenes IV. Hiuen Tsang
- (a) I, III, II, IV
- (b) III, I, IV, II
- (c) I, IV, II, III
- (d) III, IV, II, I
Show answer
(b) III, I, IV, II — Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-tsing.
MainsLong answer (150 words): Evaluate Megasthenes’ Indica as a source for Mauryan Pataliputra.
Complete model answer
Megasthenes, envoy of Seleucus I to Chandragupta Maurya around 302–298 BCE, wrote the Indica, the earliest detailed foreign description of Pataliputra. The book is lost and survives only in quotations by Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus and Pliny.
Value. He describes Palibothra at the meeting of the Ganga and Erannoboas (Son) as a long parallelogram with a timber wall, 570 towers, 64 gates and a defensive ditch, and notes a wooden palace. He reports that the city was run by six boards of five members each and describes seven social classes. His Greek name “Sandrokottos” for Chandragupta helps fix Mauryan chronology. The timber palisade at Bulandibagh confirms his account of the walls.
Limits. Later writers may have altered his words; he misunderstood some customs, such as claiming there were no slaves; and his seven classes are an outsider’s grouping, not Indian social theory.
Read critically and cross-checked, the Indica remains a vital outside source for Mauryan Pataliputra.
≈ 190 words
- Draw Palibothra as a long rectangle between two rivers; mark the timber wall, towers, gates and ditch.
- Make a card of Greek names: Palibothra, Erannoboas, Sandrokottos, Prasioi — with modern equivalents.
- Write the four visitors in order with one Bihar fact each.
- I can explain why foreign accounts are valuable.
- I can put Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, Xuanzang and I-tsing in order with dates.
- I can explain how the Indica survives.
- I can describe Palibothra with numbers.
- I can describe Megasthenes’ seven classes and city boards — and their limits.
- Foreign accounts give dating anchors, eyewitness detail and an outside view.
- Order: Megasthenes (c. 302 BCE) → Fa-Hien (399–414) → Xuanzang (629–645) → I-tsing (671–695).
- Indica is lost — known via Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus, Pliny.
- Palibothra: Ganga–Son; timber wall, 570 towers, 64 gates, ditch; confirmed at Bulandibagh.
- Seven classes; six boards of five; later envoys Deimachus (Bindusara), Dionysius (Ptolemy II).
- NCERT Class 6, Our Pasts I — Ch 9; NCERT Class 12, Themes I — Ch 2.
- Old NCERT Class 11 (R.S. Sharma) — Mauryan sources.
- Megasthenes’ fragments in Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus and Pliny.
- UPSC Civil Services Prelims 1999 (chronology question).
- Megasthenes: envoy of Seleucus I to Chandragupta Maurya (c. 302 BCE); Indica known from Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus, Pliny.
- Palibothra: Ganga–Son (Erannoboas) meeting; wooden wall, 570 towers, 64 gates, moat.
- City run by six boards of five (BPSC 2003); society in seven classes (BPSC 2003).
- Question: Who wrote Indica? Answer: Megasthenes.
- Question: How many classes did Megasthenes describe? Answer: Seven.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
[School] Megasthenes was sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by:
[School] Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of:
[School] Hiuen Tsang visited India during the reign of:
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Who wrote Indica?
Megasthenes.How many classes did Megasthenes describe?
Seven.Concept
7.2 Transition Level — The Chinese pilgrims
🔄 Transition Level · From school basics to deeper historical detail
- School
- Class 10+2
- BPSC
- UPSC
- Explain why Chinese monks made the long journey to Bihar.
- Describe Fa-Hien’s Gupta-age Pataliputra in detail.
- Describe Xuanzang’s Nalanda — teachers, admission, numbers, patrons.
- Describe I-tsing’s picture of monastic routine at Nalanda.
- Trace how Pataliputra and Nalanda changed across three visits.
A traveller reaches a famous monastery in Bihar. At the gate, the keeper asks him difficult questions; NCERT says many visitors fail and are turned away. Which monastery, and who described this?
Show answer
Nalanda, described by Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), who studied there in the 7th century. NCERT Class 6 quotes his account of its strict standards.
Imagine walking for years across deserts and mountains, or sailing through storms — just to read the right books and stand where the Buddha stood. That is what these monks did.
- To visit places linked with the Buddha — Bodh Gaya, Rajgir, Vaishali, Nalanda, Pataliputra (NCERT Class 6).
- To collect authentic Buddhist texts and take them back to China for translation.
- To study at great monasteries, above all Nalanda.
- Routes: overland through Central Asia and the Himalayan passes; or by sea via south-east Asia to Tamralipti (Bengal coast).
| Pilgrim | Years in India (approx.) | Indian ruler | Book |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fa-Hien (Faxian) | 399–414 CE | Chandragupta II (Gupta) — not named by him | Foguoji (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms) |
| Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) | 629–645 CE | Harsha | Si-yu-ki (Records of the Western World); biography by Huili |
| I-tsing (Yijing) | 671–695 CE | Post-Harsha | A Record of the Buddhist Religion |
CheckQuick check: Under which Indian king did Fa-Hien visit?
Chandragupta II (Gupta) — though Fa-Hien does not name him.
Fa-Hien arrived when the Gupta empire was at its height. His Pataliputra was still splendid — and he was amazed by what he saw.
- Stayed about three years at Pataliputra, learning Sanskrit and copying Buddhist rule-books (Vinaya).
- Saw Ashoka’s palace still standing and believed it was “made by spirits” — so magnificent did it seem.
- Described free hospitals and charity houses run by leading families, where the poor and sick received food and medicine.
- Watched a great annual procession of Buddha images on decorated four-wheeled carts.
- Called Magadha’s towns the largest of central India and its people prosperous.
- Noted that chandalas lived outside towns and had to strike a piece of wood to warn others — evidence of untouchability.
- Visited Rajgir, Bodh Gaya and Vaishali; left India by sea from Tamralipti.
Fa-Hien never names the Gupta emperor. Why might that be?
Show answer
He was a pilgrim interested in Buddhism, not a diplomat. He describes monasteries, relics and charity, not court politics. This is a reminder that every source has its own focus — and its own silences.
CheckQuick check: How long did Fa-Hien stay at Pataliputra, and what did he do there?
About three years, learning Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts.
Xuanzang is Nalanda’s most famous student. Because of him, we know more about Nalanda than about almost any other ancient Indian institution.
| Aspect | What he (and his biographer Huili) report |
|---|---|
| Teacher | Studied for about five years under the great abbot Shilabhadra |
| Admission | Strict — the gate-keeper tested newcomers with hard questions; many failed (NCERT) |
| Size | Thousands of monks — his biographer gives about 10,000 (likely an exaggeration) |
| Subjects | Buddhist philosophy (Mahayana, Yogachara), logic, grammar, medicine, the Vedas |
| Support | Endowed by kings with the revenue of villages |
| Pataliputra | Found the old capital in ruins — only a small town remained near the Ganga |
- He met Harsha and attended his great assemblies at Kanauj and Prayag; he also visited Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa (Assam).
- He carried hundreds of manuscripts back to China and spent the rest of his life translating them.
CheckQuick check: Who was Xuanzang’s teacher at Nalanda?
Shilabhadra.
If Xuanzang shows Nalanda’s greatness, I-tsing shows its daily life — like a student’s diary of rules and routines.
- Came by sea, landing at Tamralipti (c. 673), and studied at Nalanda for about ten years.
- Described more than 3,000 monks and lands of many villages granted by kings for their upkeep.
- Recorded the daily routine — bathing, timed by a water-clock, chanting, study and debate.
- Wrote rules on food, clothing, medicine and conduct, and biographies of other Chinese monks who travelled to India.
- Wrote his record in Srivijaya (Sumatra) on the way back — showing Nalanda’s links with south-east Asia.
Xuanzang’s biographer says about 10,000 monks; I-tsing says over 3,000. A historian does not just pick one. He notes that I-tsing is more matter-of-fact, that numbers changed over time, and that biographers tend to exaggerate. Conclusion: Nalanda had several thousand residents.
CheckQuick check: Roughly how long did I-tsing study at Nalanda?
About ten years.
Put the three visits side by side and you see history moving: Pataliputra fading, Nalanda rising.
| Fa-Hien (c. 400 CE) | Xuanzang (c. 630s) | I-tsing (c. 670s–680s) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pataliputra | Splendid; Ashoka’s palace standing; hospitals | Largely in ruins | Not a major centre |
| Nalanda | Not yet prominent in his account | At its height; famous teachers | Large, organised, international |
| Political setting | Gupta empire at its height | Harsha’s empire | After Harsha |
Old spellings (Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-tsing) come from older romanisation; new ones (Faxian, Xuanzang, Yijing) follow modern Pinyin. They are the same people — learn both.
His account does not describe Nalanda as a great university; Nalanda’s rise as a mahavihara is linked with the Guptas after his time and peaks in Xuanzang’s age.
Yes — they were Buddhist monks and saw India through a Buddhist lens. They praise monasteries and pious kings and say little about other faiths except in passing.
“Fa — Hospitals; Hiuen — Harsha; I — Ten years”
Fa-Hien: Gupta Pataliputra, free hospitals, 3 years. Hiuen Tsang: Harsha, Shilabhadra, Nalanda. I-tsing: sea route, Tamralipti, ~10 years at Nalanda.
Pataliputra across visits: “Splendid → Ruined”.
1 markWhy did Chinese pilgrims come to India?
To visit places linked with the Buddha, study at monasteries like Nalanda and collect Buddhist texts.
1 markWhich Chinese pilgrim studied at Nalanda under Shilabhadra?
Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang).
3 marksDescribe Pataliputra as seen by Fa-Hien.
- Ashoka’s palace still standing, believed to be “made by spirits”.
- Free hospitals and charity houses for the poor and sick.
- Annual procession of Buddha images on decorated carts.
- Prosperous people; he stayed three years learning Sanskrit.
3 marksWhat do we learn about Nalanda from Xuanzang and I-tsing?
- Famous teachers like Shilabhadra; strict admission tests.
- Thousands of monks (10,000 per Huili; over 3,000 per I-tsing).
- Subjects: Buddhist philosophy, logic, grammar, medicine, Vedas.
- Supported by revenue of villages granted by kings; organised daily routine.
PYQ pattern Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of:
- (a) Samudragupta
- (b) Chandragupta II
- (c) Kumaragupta I
- (d) Harsha
Show answer
(b) Chandragupta II.
PYQ pattern Which Chinese pilgrim stayed about ten years at Nalanda?
- (a) Fa-Hien
- (b) Sung Yun
- (c) I-tsing
- (d) Wang Hiuen-tse
Show answer
(c) I-tsing.
A–RAssertion (A): Xuanzang found Pataliputra largely in ruins. Reason (R): By the 7th century, Magadha’s importance had shifted towards Nalanda and the political centre had moved to Kanauj.
Both A and R are true, and R correctly explains A.
CDS 2012 Which Chinese traveller visited the courts of both Harsha and Bhaskaravarman?
- (a) Fa-Hien
- (b) Hiuen Tsang
- (c) I-tsing
- (d) Sung Yun
Show answer
(b) Hiuen Tsang.
MainsLong answer (250 words): How do the accounts of Chinese pilgrims help reconstruct the history of Magadha from the 5th to the 7th century CE?
Complete model answer
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims travelled to Magadha to visit sacred sites, collect texts and study. Their dated, eyewitness accounts form a backbone for the history of the region between the Guptas and the Palas.
Fa-Hien (399–414 CE). Visiting during Chandragupta II’s reign, he stayed three years at Pataliputra learning Sanskrit. He describes Ashoka’s palace still standing, free hospitals and charity houses, an annual procession of Buddha images and a prosperous population, and notes that chandalas lived outside towns. His account shows Gupta Magadha as rich and pious, though he ignores court politics.
Xuanzang (629–645 CE). He found Pataliputra largely in ruins but Nalanda at its height. He studied there about five years under Shilabhadra and describes strict admission, eminent teachers, a wide curriculum and royal endowments; his biographer Huili gives about ten thousand monks. He also met Harsha and Bhaskaravarman, linking Magadha with wider politics.
I-tsing (671–695 CE). Arriving by sea at Tamralipti, he spent about ten years at Nalanda and recorded its daily routine, over three thousand monks and endowments of villages, as well as its links with Srivijaya.
Value and limits. Together they show a shift of Magadha’s importance from the political capital to the monastic university, and their distances later guided archaeologists to Nalanda. But they view India through a Buddhist lens, exaggerate numbers and say little about other religions or politics.
Read critically, the pilgrims’ records are indispensable for early medieval Magadha.
≈ 300 words
- Make a three-column card: Fa-Hien, Xuanzang, I-tsing — dates, ruler, route, book, one Bihar fact.
- Draw the sea route of I-tsing: China → Srivijaya → Tamralipti → Nalanda.
- Write 100 words: “How Pataliputra changed between Fa-Hien and Xuanzang.”
- I can explain why Chinese monks came to Bihar.
- I can describe Fa-Hien’s Pataliputra in five points.
- I can describe Nalanda through Xuanzang.
- I can describe I-tsing’s Nalanda routine and route.
- I can compare the three visits.
- Chinese monks came for sacred sites, texts and study; routes by land or by sea to Tamralipti.
- Fa-Hien (399–414, Chandragupta II): 3 years at Pataliputra; Ashoka’s palace; free hospitals; image procession.
- Xuanzang (629–645, Harsha): Nalanda under Shilabhadra; strict entry; Pataliputra in ruins; visited Bhaskaravarman too.
- I-tsing (671–695): by sea via Tamralipti; ~10 years at Nalanda; daily routine; 3,000+ monks.
- Shift: from Pataliputra (political capital) to Nalanda (monastic university).
- NCERT Class 6, Our Pasts I — Ch 9 “Traders, Kings and Pilgrims”.
- Old NCERT Class 11 (R.S. Sharma) — Gupta and post-Gupta sources.
- Fa-Hien, Foguoji; Xuanzang, Si-yu-ki, and Huili’s biography; I-tsing, A Record of the Buddhist Religion.
- CDS 2012 question (Harsha and Bhaskaravarman).
- Palace mainly of wood (BPSC 1996); Deimachus to Bindusara.
- Fa-Hien (399–414, Chandragupta II): three years at Pataliputra; Fo-kuo-ki.
- Hiuen Tsang (629–645, Harsha): studied at Nalanda under Shilabhadra; Si-Yu-Ki; Pataliputra in ruins.
- Question: What did the Greeks call the Son river? Answer: Erannoboas.
- Question: Under which king did Fa-Hien visit? Answer: Chandragupta II.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
[UPSC level] Megasthenes’ Indica survives today:
[BSSC pattern] Deimachus came as an envoy to the court of:
[UPSC level] Which statement of Megasthenes is known to be incorrect?
Question 9 (Historical miscellaneous): Hiuen Tsang, on his Indian journey, described which town at length in his travel account?
[BSSC pattern] The travel account of Hiuen Tsang is called:
[UPSC level] Dharmasvamin, who saw Nalanda in 1234–36 after the Turkish raids, was a:
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
What did the Greeks call the Son river?
Erannoboas.Under which king did Fa-Hien visit?
Chandragupta II.Concept
7.3 Advanced Level — Tibetans, critique and rediscovery
🎯 Advanced Level · Short and long questions with full topic facts
- School
- Class 10+2
- BPSC
- UPSC
- Describe Bihar’s Tibetan connections — Vikramashila, Atisha, Dharmasvamin and Taranatha.
- Evaluate the reliability of Greek, Chinese and Tibetan accounts.
- Explain how travel records led to archaeological rediscovery.
- Compare all visitors in one master table.
- Explain what foreign eyes reveal about Bihar’s place in Asia, and write complete Mains answers.
In 1235 a Tibetan monk finds a great university mostly empty. A ninety-year-old teacher still instructs about seventy students, hiding in the forest when raiders come. Who is the monk, who is the teacher, and what does this scene tell us?
Show answer
The monk is Dharmasvamin; the teacher is Rahula Shribhadra; the place is Nalanda. It shows that after the Turkish raids (c. 1200), Nalanda survived only as a shadow — an eyewitness account of its final days.
After the Chinese pilgrims, a new set of visitors came from Tibet. Through them, Bihar’s Pala-age universities shaped the Buddhism of the Himalayas.
- 8th–9th c.
Pala kings patronise Nalanda; Dharmapala founds Vikramashila; Tibetan scholars begin to study and translate texts. - c. 1040s
Atisha Dipankara Shrijnana, a leading teacher at Vikramashila, travels to Tibet on invitation and reforms Tibetan Buddhism. - c. 1200
Turkish raids devastate the mahaviharas of Bihar. - 1234–36
Dharmasvamin visits Bodh Gaya and Nalanda: about 80 small viharas abandoned, only two working; studies under Rahula Shribhadra; raids continue. - 1608
Taranatha writes his History of Buddhism in India — later traditions on the Pala kings, Vikramashila and Odantapuri.
CheckQuick check: Which Vikramashila teacher went to Tibet in the 11th century?
Atisha Dipankara Shrijnana.
Foreign visitors are precious, but they are not neutral cameras. Each group saw India through its own lens. Let us test them.
| Visitors | Strengths | Weaknesses |
|---|---|---|
| Greek (Megasthenes) | Contemporary; dates Chandragupta; describes Pataliputra and administration | Original lost; misunderstandings (no slaves, seven classes); some tall tales (gold-digging ants) |
| Chinese (Fa-Hien, Xuanzang, I-tsing) | Precise distances and directions; detailed monastery life; dated journeys | Buddhist lens; numbers exaggerated (esp. biographies); little on politics or other faiths |
| Tibetan (Dharmasvamin, Taranatha) | Eyewitness of Nalanda’s end (Dharmasvamin); preserve Pala traditions | Taranatha writes centuries later and mixes legend |
Megasthenes said there was no famine and no slavery in India. How should a historian use such a statement?
Show answer
Not as a fact about India, but as evidence of what an outsider noticed or assumed. Perhaps dasas looked different from Greek slaves; perhaps he saw prosperous Pataliputra and generalised. Contradicting Indian texts, such claims must be rejected or explained.
Here is the most exciting use of foreign accounts: they became maps for archaeologists. Nineteenth-century surveyors literally walked with Xuanzang’s book in hand.
| Site | Foreign clue | Who found it |
|---|---|---|
| Nalanda (Bargaon) | Xuanzang’s distance and direction from Rajagriha | Kittoe (1847), Cunningham (1861–62); seals later confirmed it |
| Pataliputra (Patna) | Megasthenes’ timber walls; Fa-Hien and Xuanzang on Ashoka’s city | L.A. Waddell (1890s, Bulandibagh); D.B. Spooner (Kumrahar, 1912–15) |
| Vaishali (Basarh) | Xuanzang’s route and descriptions | Cunningham |
| Rajgir, Bodh Gaya | Pilgrim itineraries and monuments described | Cunningham and later ASI surveys |
- Xuanzang says Nalanda lies a certain distance north of Rajagriha (Rajgir).
- Cunningham starts at Rajgir and follows that direction and distance.
- He finds large brick mounds at Bargaon.
- Later excavations find seals naming the Nalanda Mahavihara — proof.
CheckQuick check: Whose travel account guided Cunningham to Nalanda?
Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang).
Learn this one table and you can answer almost any question on foreign visitors to Bihar.
| Visitor | From | Date | Ruler / period | Key Bihar evidence | Work |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Megasthenes | Greece (Seleucid) | c. 302–298 BCE | Chandragupta Maurya | Palibothra: timber wall, 570 towers, 64 gates; boards; seven classes | Indica (fragments) |
| Deimachus | Seleucid | 3rd c. BCE | Bindusara | Envoy at Pataliputra | — |
| Fa-Hien | China | 399–414 CE | Chandragupta II | 3 years at Pataliputra; Ashoka’s palace; hospitals | Foguoji |
| Xuanzang | China | 629–645 CE | Harsha | Nalanda under Shilabhadra; Pataliputra in ruins | Si-yu-ki |
| I-tsing | China | 671–695 CE | Post-Harsha | ~10 years at Nalanda; routine; 3,000+ monks | Record of the Buddhist Religion |
| Dharmasvamin | Tibet | 1234–36 | After Turkish raids | Nalanda mostly abandoned; Rahula Shribhadra | Biography by his disciple |
| Taranatha | Tibet | 1608 (writing) | Retrospective | Pala kings, Vikramashila, Odantapuri traditions | History of Buddhism in India |
Step back. Why did people from Greece, China, Korea, Tibet and Sumatra all come to Bihar? Because Bihar was, for over a thousand years, a centre of the Asian world.
The major raids came around 1200, but Dharmasvamin’s account shows a small community still teaching in 1234–36. So write “devastated around 1200; lingered for some decades”.
He wrote in 1608, centuries after the events, and mixes legend with tradition. Use him for Pala-age traditions, and say “according to Tibetan tradition”.
Because the Nalanda copper plate of Devapala shows foreign rulers funding Nalanda — strong proof of Bihar’s international role, beyond the travellers’ words.
“G-C-T” lenses: Greek Government, Chinese Cloisters, Tibetan Twilight
Greek eyes saw government (Pataliputra, boards). Chinese eyes saw cloisters (monasteries, Nalanda). Tibetan eyes saw the twilight (Vikramashila, Nalanda’s end).
Tibetan trio: “A-D-T” — Atisha (1040s), Dharmasvamin (1234–36), Taranatha (1608).
PYQ pattern Which Tibetan monk visited Nalanda in 1234–36 and recorded its decline?
- (a) Taranatha
- (b) Dharmasvamin
- (c) Atisha
- (d) Marpa
Show answer
(b) Dharmasvamin.
PYQ pattern Atisha Dipankara, who went to Tibet, was associated with which mahavihara?
- (a) Nalanda
- (b) Odantapuri
- (c) Vikramashila
- (d) Somapura
Show answer
(c) Vikramashila.
MainsLong answer (BPSC Mains style): Discuss the importance of the accounts of foreign travellers for the history of ancient Bihar.
Complete model answer
Introduction. Indian texts rarely give exact dates and speak from inside the culture. Foreign visitors to Bihar — Greek, Chinese and Tibetan — supply dated, eyewitness and outside views from the Mauryan age to the end of the Pala period.
Greek accounts. Megasthenes, envoy of Seleucus I to Chandragupta Maurya around 302 BCE, described Palibothra at the meeting of the Ganga and Son, with a timber wall, 570 towers and 64 gates, a city run by six boards of five members and society in seven classes. His Indica survives only in quotations by Strabo, Arrian, Diodorus and Pliny. Greek sources also fix Chandragupta’s date as “Sandrokottos”.
Chinese pilgrims. Fa-Hien (399–414 CE) spent three years at Pataliputra under Chandragupta II, describing Ashoka’s palace, free hospitals and image processions. Xuanzang (629–645) studied at Nalanda under Shilabhadra, described its strict admission and scholarship, and found Pataliputra in ruins. I-tsing (671–695), arriving via Tamralipti, recorded Nalanda’s daily routine over about ten years.
Tibetan sources. Atisha of Vikramashila carried Bihar’s learning to Tibet; Dharmasvamin (1234–36) saw Nalanda mostly abandoned after the Turkish raids; Taranatha (1608) preserved Pala-age traditions.
Uses. These accounts provide chronology, describe cities and monasteries, show Bihar’s international links and guided archaeologists — Cunningham used Xuanzang to locate Nalanda, and Megasthenes’ timber wall matched the Bulandibagh palisade.
Limitations. Megasthenes’ text is lost and contains errors; the Chinese write through a Buddhist lens and exaggerate numbers; Taranatha is late and legendary.
Conclusion. Critically used and cross-checked, foreign accounts are among the most valuable sources for ancient Bihar.
≈ 340 words
UPPSC 2024 pattern Arrange in chronological order: 1. I-tsing 2. Al-Biruni 3. Hiuen Tsang 4. Fa-Hien
- (a) 1, 2, 3, 4
- (b) 4, 3, 1, 2
- (c) 3, 4, 1, 2
- (d) 4, 1, 3, 2
Show answer
(b) 4, 3, 1, 2 — Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-tsing, Al-Biruni.
MainsLong answer (250 words): “Foreign accounts reveal Bihar as a centre of the Asian world.” Discuss.
Complete model answer
For more than a thousand years, travellers from distant lands came to Bihar, and their records show that the region was not merely an Indian centre but a hub of Asian politics, religion and learning.
Political centre. In the Mauryan age, Pataliputra received envoys from the Hellenistic kingdoms — Megasthenes at Chandragupta’s court, Deimachus at Bindusara’s and Dionysius from Ptolemy II. Megasthenes’ description of a vast timber-walled capital with organised administration shows a city known across the Greek world.
Sacred geography. Bodh Gaya, Rajgir, Vaishali and Nalanda formed the heart of Buddhist pilgrimage. Fa-Hien, Xuanzang and I-tsing travelled by land and sea from China to visit them, and their routes linked Bihar with Central Asia and with Tamralipti and Srivijaya across the sea.
Centre of learning. Nalanda, described by Xuanzang and I-tsing, attracted thousands of monks, and Vikramashila trained Tibetan translators. A copper plate of the Pala king Devapala records a monastery at Nalanda built by Balaputradeva of Srivijaya, showing foreign royal patronage. Atisha of Vikramashila carried Bihar’s Buddhism to Tibet.
Knowledge network. Texts carried to China and translated into Tibetan preserved Indian learning even after the mahaviharas were devastated around 1200, as Dharmasvamin’s eyewitness account of a near-empty Nalanda shows.
Caution. These are outsiders’ views, shaped by diplomatic or Buddhist interests, and must be cross-checked with Indian sources and archaeology.
Even so, the convergence of Greek, Chinese and Tibetan testimony clearly shows ancient Bihar as a centre of the Asian world.
≈ 290 words
- Write the BPSC long answer in 15 minutes and compare with the model.
- Copy the master table of visitors from memory.
- Draw a map of Asia with arrows from Greece, China, Tibet and Srivijaya to Bihar.
- I can describe Atisha, Dharmasvamin and Taranatha.
- I can judge Greek, Chinese and Tibetan accounts for reliability.
- I can explain how Xuanzang’s record led to Nalanda’s rediscovery.
- I can reproduce the master table of visitors.
- I can argue that Bihar was a centre of the Asian world.
- Tibetan links: Vikramashila (Dharmapala) → Atisha to Tibet (1040s) → Dharmasvamin at a near-empty Nalanda (1234–36) → Taranatha (1608).
- Reliability: Greek (lost, outsider errors), Chinese (Buddhist lens, exaggerated numbers), Tibetan (late legend).
- Rediscovery: Xuanzang guided Cunningham to Bargaon (Nalanda); Megasthenes matched Bulandibagh.
- Master order: Megasthenes → Fa-Hien → Xuanzang → I-tsing → Dharmasvamin → Taranatha.
- Bihar as an Asian centre: envoys, pilgrims, students, Srivijaya patronage, Tibetan translations.
- NCERT Class 6, Our Pasts I — Ch 9; old NCERT Class 11 (R.S. Sharma).
- Biography of Dharmasvamin (tr. G. Roerich); Taranatha, History of Buddhism in India (1608).
- A. Cunningham, ASI reports (1861–62); Nalanda copper plate of Devapala.
- UPPSC 2024 chronology question (pattern).
- I-tsing (671–695): about ten years at Nalanda.
- Dharmasvamin (Tibetan, 1234–36) and Taranath (Tibetan, 1608) cover the late phase.
- First traveller to visit Bihar: Megasthenes.
- Question: Who was Hiuen Tsang’s teacher at Nalanda? Answer: Shilabhadra.
- Question: Which pilgrim stayed about ten years at Nalanda? Answer: I-tsing.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
[PYQ · BPSC 2003] The administration of Pataliputra is described in:
[PYQ · BPSC 2003] Megasthenes divided the society of Mauryan India into how many classes?
[PYQ · BPSC 1996] The palace of Chandragupta Maurya was made mainly of:
[BPSC level] According to Megasthenes, the wall of Pataliputra had:
[BPSC level] The Erannoboas, at whose meeting with the Ganga Palibothra stood, is the:
[BPSC level] The municipal administration of Pataliputra described by Megasthenes had:
[BPSC level] Which pair is correct?
[BPSC (year not stated)] Who among the following was the first traveller to visit Bihar?
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Who was Hiuen Tsang’s teacher at Nalanda?
Shilabhadra.Which pilgrim stayed about ten years at Nalanda?
I-tsing.