Mod 7: Schools of Buddhism, Its Spread Across Asia, Its Decline in India and Its Revival
Concept
3.19 School Level — Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana and the philosophical schools
🏫 School Level · NCERT Class 6–12 History · clear basics
Key terms and events:
- Hinayana/Theravada: Hinayana/Theravada (arhat, Pali) vs Mahayana (Bodhisattva, Sanskrit, images) vs Vajrayana (tantra, Palas).
- Madhyamaka: Madhyamaka = Nagarjuna; Yogachara = Asanga, Vasubandhu.
After the Second Council the Sangha divided into many schools — tradition counts eighteen. Over time three broad “vehicles” (yanas) emerged: Hinayana / Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. (“Hinayana”, “lesser vehicle”, was a Mahayana term; Theravadins call themselves Theravada, “teaching of the elders”.)
| Point | Hinayana / Theravada | Mahayana |
|---|---|---|
| Ideal | Arhat — one who gains nirvana for himself | Bodhisattva — delays his own nirvana to help all beings |
| Buddha | A great human teacher | A divine, eternal being; worshipped in images |
| Language | Pali | Sanskrit |
| Path | Own effort, meditation, monastic life | Also devotion, faith and the six/ten paramitas (perfections) |
| Where today | Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia | China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam; (Vajrayana) Tibet, Bhutan, Ladakh |
| Bodhisattva | Stands for |
|---|---|
| Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani, Lokeshvara) | Compassion; the Ajanta “Padmapani” painting |
| Manjushri | Wisdom (holds a sword and a book) |
| Vajrapani | Power (holds the vajra) |
| Maitreya | The future Buddha (UPSC 2018) |
| Kshitigarbha | Guardian of beings in the hells; travellers and children |
Philosophical schools you must know (higher level):
- Sarvastivada — “everything exists”: the elements (dharmas) exist in past, present and future; they are not wholly momentary (UPSC 2017). Strong in Kashmir; held the Fourth Council.
- Sautrantika and Sammitiya — Buddhist (not Jain) schools; the Sammitiyas (Pudgalavada) held that a “person” exists in some sense.
- Lokottaravada — an offshoot of the Mahasanghikas: the Buddha was “supramundane”; this deification helped Mahayana grow (UPSC 2020).
- Madhyamaka (Shunyavada) — Nagarjuna: all things are “empty” (shunya) of independent existence.
- Yogachara (Vijnanavada) — the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu: only consciousness is real.
- Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism) — mantras, mudras, mandalas and female deities such as Tara; grew under the Palas at Nalanda and Vikramashila; the 84 Mahasiddhas.
After the Second Council the Sangha divided into many schools — tradition counts eighteen. Over time three broad “vehicles” (yanas) emerged: Hinayana / Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. (“Hinayana”, “lesser vehicle”, was a Mahayana term; Theravadins call themselves Theravada, “teaching of the elders”.)
Distinguish Hinayana/Theravada and Mahayana in one contrast each.
Model answer: Theravada emphasises arhatship and the Pali canon; Mahayana emphasises the bodhisattva path and universal liberation, with later sutras.
Name two philosophical schools and one bodhisattva important in Mahayana.
Model answer:
Mahayana philosophy is organised through schools and bodhisattva devotion.
- Madhyamaka (Nagarjuna): emptiness (shunyata) of inherent existence.
- Yogacara: mind-only analysis of experience.
- Bodhisattva ideal: e.g. Avalokiteshvara (compassion), Manjushri (wisdom), Maitreya (future Buddha).
- Contrast briefly with Theravada arhat ideal for clarity.
Name two schools + one bodhisattva with function.
Further development. A UPSC-ready answer should move from definitions to causation and consequence. Relate the theme to the middle Ganga / Bihar setting wherever the sources allow, and avoid one-line listings without explanation.
Supporting facts to weave into the argument:
- Hinayana/Theravada (arhat, Pali) vs Mahayana (Bodhisattva, Sanskrit, images) vs Vajrayana (tantra, Palas).
- Sarvastivada, Sautrantika, Sammitiya — Buddhist schools (UPSC 2017).
- Madhyamaka = Nagarjuna; Yogachara = Asanga, Vasubandhu.
- Maitreya = future Buddha (UPSC 2018); paramitas = perfections (UPSC 2020).
Quick anchors examiners expect: Question: Who is the future Buddha? Answer: Maitreya.; Question: Who founded the Madhyamaka school? Answer: Nagarjuna..
Significance. In conclusion, the question “Name two philosophical schools and one bodhisattva important in Mahayana.” is best answered as a connected historical argument: state the core claim, support it with Bihar-centred evidence, and close with why the issue matters for ancient Indian polity, economy or religion.
| Point | Hinayana / Theravada | Mahayana |
|---|---|---|
| Ideal | Arhat — one who gains nirvana for himself | Bodhisattva — delays his own nirvana to help all beings |
| Buddha | A great human teacher | A divine, eternal being; worshipped in images |
| Language | Pali | Sanskrit |
| Path | Own effort, meditation, monastic life | Also devotion, faith and the six/ten paramitas (perfections) |
| Where today | Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia | China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam; (Vajrayana) Tibet, Bhutan, Ladakh |
- Hinayana/Theravada (arhat, Pali) vs Mahayana (Bodhisattva, Sanskrit, images) vs Vajrayana (tantra, Palas).
- Sarvastivada, Sautrantika, Sammitiya — Buddhist schools (UPSC 2017).
- Madhyamaka = Nagarjuna; Yogachara = Asanga, Vasubandhu.
- Maitreya = future Buddha (UPSC 2018); paramitas = perfections (UPSC 2020).
- Question: Who is the future Buddha? Answer: Maitreya.
- Question: Who founded the Madhyamaka school? Answer: Nagarjuna.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
[School] The ideal of Mahayana Buddhism is the:
[BPSC level] Which language did Mahayana texts mainly use?
[UPSC 2016] Which statements about the Bodhisattva concept are correct? (2: compassionate being on the way to enlightenment; 3: delays own salvation; 1: central to Hinayana)
[UPSC 2018] Who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world?
[UPSC 2017] Which statement is correct? 1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were Jain sects. 2. Sarvastivadins held that phenomena were not wholly momentary but existed in latent form.
[UPSC 2020] The term “paramitas” in Buddhism refers to:
[UPSC 2020] Which statements are correct? 1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana. 2. Lokottaravadins were an offshoot of the Mahasanghikas. 3. The Mahasanghikas’ deification of the Buddha fostered Mahayana.
[BPSC level] The Madhyamaka (Shunyavada) school was founded by:
[UPSC level] The Yogachara (Vijnanavada) school, holding that only consciousness is real, was developed by:
[BPSC level] Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism flourished especially under the:
[School] The Bodhisattva of wisdom, shown with a sword and a book, is:
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Who is the future Buddha?
Maitreya.Who founded the Madhyamaka school?
Nagarjuna.Concept
3.20 Transition Level — Spread, decline and revival
🔄 Transition Level · From school basics to deeper historical detail
Key terms and events:
- Padmasambhava: 8th c.
- Revival and absorption by Hinduism: the Bhakti movement, Shankaracharya’s Advaita, and the Buddha accepted as an avatar of Vishnu
- Turkish raids: around 1193–1205
- Spread: Sri Lanka (Mahinda), China (White Horse Temple), Tibet (Shantarakshita, Atisha 1042), SE Asia (Shailendras).
- Decline: patronage lost, Hindu absorption, rich monasteries, Sanskrit and Tantra, Bakhtiyar Khalji c. 1200.
- Revival: Dharmapala (1891), Rahul Sankrityayan, Ambedkar (Nagpur, 14 Oct 1956).
From Bihar to Asia, and back again
From Bihar to Asia, and back again
Why did Buddhism decline in India?.
- Loss of royal patronage after the Palas; most later kings supported Brahmanical cults.
- Revival and absorption by Hinduism: the Bhakti movement, Shankaracharya’s Advaita, and the Buddha accepted as an avatar of Vishnu.
- Monasteries grew rich and distant from lay people; Sanskrit replaced the people’s Pali; Vajrayana rituals blurred the difference with Hindu Tantra.
- Sectarian splits weakened unity.
- Turkish raids: around 1193–1205 Bakhtiyar Khalji sacked Odantapuri, Nalanda and Vikramashila; monks fled to Tibet and Nepal. This was the final blow, not the only cause.
Revival in modern India.
- Archaeology: Alexander Cunningham identified Buddhist sites (1860s–80s) and restored the Mahabodhi Temple.
- Edwin Arnold’s poem The Light of Asia (1879); Anagarika Dharmapala’s Maha Bodhi Society (1891).
- Rahul Sankrityayan of Bihar brought back Buddhist manuscripts from Tibet (1930s).
- B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism with lakhs of followers at Nagpur on 14 October 1956 (Navayana); his book The Buddha and His Dhamma appeared in 1957.
- After 1959 the Dalai Lama and Tibetan refugees made Dharamshala a centre of Tibetan Buddhism.
| Region | How and when |
|---|---|
| Sri Lanka | Mahinda and Sanghamitta, sent by Ashoka (3rd c. BCE); Bodhi tree sapling to Anuradhapura |
| Central Asia → China | Along the Silk Road; the White Horse Temple at Luoyang (traditionally 68 CE), with the Indian monks Kashyapa Matanga and Dharmaratna |
| Korea and Japan | From China, 4th–6th c. CE |
| Tibet | Shantarakshita of Nalanda and Padmasambhava (8th c.); Atisha Dipankara of Vikramashila went in 1042 |
| South-east Asia | Sea routes; Borobudur (Java) by the Shailendras; the Nalanda copper plate of Devapala records a monastery at Nalanda built at the request of the Shailendra king Balaputradeva |
Historian’s discovery / place evidence.
- Archaeology: Alexander Cunningham identified Buddhist sites (1860s–80s) and restored the Mahabodhi Temple.
- Edwin Arnold’s poem The Light of Asia (1879); Anagarika Dharmapala’s Maha Bodhi Society (1891).
- Rahul Sankrityayan of Bihar brought back Buddhist manuscripts from Tibet (1930s).
- B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism with lakhs of followers at Nagpur on 14 October 1956 (Navayana); his book The Buddha and His Dhamma appeared in 1957.
- After 1959 the Dalai Lama and Tibetan refugees made Dharamshala a centre of Tibetan Buddhism.
- Archaeology: Alexander Cunningham identified Buddhist sites (1860s–80s) and restored the Mahabodhi Temple.
- Edwin Arnold’s poem The Light of Asia (1879); Anagarika Dharmapala’s Maha Bodhi Society (1891).
- Rahul Sankrityayan of Bihar brought back Buddhist manuscripts from Tibet (1930s).
- B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism with lakhs of followers at Nagpur on 14 October 1956 (Navayana); his book The Buddha and His Dhamma appeared in 1957.
- After 1959 the Dalai Lama and Tibetan refugees made Dharamshala a centre of Tibetan Buddhism.
Give two reasons for Buddhism’s decline in India.
Model answer: Loss of royal patronage after later dynasties; absorption into Hindu practices; Turkic invasions destroying centres like Nalanda; internal complexity.
How did Buddhism spread from Bihar across Asia, and how was it revived in modern India?
Model answer:
Buddhism spread from Magadhan Bihar across Asia through missions and monks, and returned to modern India through social and pilgrimage revival.
- Ashokan missions (including Sri Lanka) and later scholars carried Vinaya and sutras along trade routes to Central and East Asia.
- Universities like Nalanda internationalised Bihar’s learning brand.
- Decline in India contrasted with flourishing abroad.
- Modern revival: Ambedkar’s mass conversion, Maha Bodhi Society, restored Bodh Gaya pilgrimage and diplomacy.
Write as outward arc + inward modern return.
Further development. A UPSC-ready answer should move from definitions to causation and consequence. Relate the theme to the middle Ganga / Bihar setting wherever the sources allow, and avoid one-line listings without explanation.
Supporting facts to weave into the argument:
- Spread: Sri Lanka (Mahinda), China (White Horse Temple), Tibet (Shantarakshita, Atisha 1042), SE Asia (Shailendras).
- Decline: patronage lost, Hindu absorption, rich monasteries, Sanskrit and Tantra, Bakhtiyar Khalji c. 1200.
- Revival: Dharmapala (1891), Rahul Sankrityayan, Ambedkar (Nagpur, 14 Oct 1956).
Quick anchors examiners expect: Question: Which Vikramashila teacher went to Tibet in 1042? Answer: Atisha Dipankara.; Question: Where did Ambedkar embrace Buddhism? Answer: Nagpur (Deekshabhoomi), 14 October 1956..
Significance. In conclusion, the question “How did Buddhism spread from Bihar across Asia, and how was it revived in modern India?” is best answered as a connected historical argument: state the core claim, support it with Bihar-centred evidence, and close with why the issue matters for ancient Indian polity, economy or religion.
| Region | How and when |
|---|---|
| Sri Lanka | Mahinda and Sanghamitta, sent by Ashoka (3rd c. BCE); Bodhi tree sapling to Anuradhapura |
| Central Asia → China | Along the Silk Road; the White Horse Temple at Luoyang (traditionally 68 CE), with the Indian monks Kashyapa Matanga and Dharmaratna |
| Korea and Japan | From China, 4th–6th c. CE |
| Tibet | Shantarakshita of Nalanda and Padmasambhava (8th c.); Atisha Dipankara of Vikramashila went in 1042 |
| South-east Asia | Sea routes; Borobudur (Java) by the Shailendras; the Nalanda copper plate of Devapala records a monastery at Nalanda built at the request of the Shailendra king Balaputradeva |
- Spread: Sri Lanka (Mahinda), China (White Horse Temple), Tibet (Shantarakshita, Atisha 1042), SE Asia (Shailendras).
- Decline: patronage lost, Hindu absorption, rich monasteries, Sanskrit and Tantra, Bakhtiyar Khalji c. 1200.
- Revival: Dharmapala (1891), Rahul Sankrityayan, Ambedkar (Nagpur, 14 Oct 1956).
- Question: Which Vikramashila teacher went to Tibet in 1042? Answer: Atisha Dipankara.
- Question: Where did Ambedkar embrace Buddhism? Answer: Nagpur (Deekshabhoomi), 14 October 1956.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
[BPSC level] Atisha Dipankara, who went to Tibet in 1042, was a teacher at:
[UPSC level] Shantarakshita, who helped establish Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century, came from:
[BPSC level] The Nalanda copper plate of Devapala records a monastery built at the request of a king of:
[UPSC level] The first Buddhist temple in China, associated with the Indian monks Kashyapa Matanga and Dharmaratna, is the:
[BPSC level] Nalanda, Vikramashila and Odantapuri were sacked around 1200 CE by:
[UPSC level] Which was NOT a cause of the decline of Buddhism in India?
[School] B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism at Nagpur in:
[BPSC level] Rahul Sankrityayan, the Bihar scholar, is remembered for:
[UPSC level] In later Hindu texts the Buddha came to be regarded as an avatar of:
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Which Vikramashila teacher went to Tibet in 1042?
Atisha Dipankara.Where did Ambedkar embrace Buddhism?
Nagpur (Deekshabhoomi), 14 October 1956.Concept
3.21 Advanced Level — Schools of Buddhism and the decline debate
🎯 Advanced Level · Short and long questions with full topic facts
Key terms and events:
- Theravada: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand; Mahayana: East Asia; Vajrayana: Tibet, Bhutan, Ladakh.
Schools of Buddhism and the decline debate
Schools of Buddhism and the decline debate
Historian’s discovery. Read this topic against archaeology and early texts so names become places and dates, not rote lists.
Schools of Buddhism and the decline debate
What is Vajrayana in relation to Mahayana?
Model answer: A tantric esoteric stream within the broader Mahayana world, strong in Tibet and the Himalayan belt, using mantras, mandalas and guru lineages.
Frame the decline debate without reducing it to a single cause.
Model answer:
Buddhism’s decline in India was multi-causal; single-cause answers are historically weak.
- Loss of royal patronage after shifts in dynasty and ideology.
- Absorption of ideas into Hindu bhakti and temple culture.
- Monastic isolation and wealth inviting criticism and attack.
- Violent destruction of centres such as Nalanda in the medieval period.
- Internal complexity (many schools) without matching lay institutional renewal.
Frame as confluence, not a single catastrophe date.
Further development. A UPSC-ready answer should move from definitions to causation and consequence. Relate the theme to the middle Ganga / Bihar setting wherever the sources allow, and avoid one-line listings without explanation.
Supporting facts to weave into the argument:
- Theravada: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand; Mahayana: East Asia; Vajrayana: Tibet, Bhutan, Ladakh.
- Avalokiteshvara = compassion; Manjushri = wisdom; Vajrapani = power.
Quick anchors examiners expect: Question: Which goddess is important in Vajrayana? Answer: Tara..
Significance. In conclusion, the question “Frame the decline debate without reducing it to a single cause.” is best answered as a connected historical argument: state the core claim, support it with Bihar-centred evidence, and close with why the issue matters for ancient Indian polity, economy or religion.
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Topic | Schools of Buddhism and the decline debate |
Solved questions from previous exams for this module, with the answer and a short explanation of why it is correct.
| Exam | What it asks from this module |
|---|---|
| UPSC | Bodhisattva (2016); Sautrantika/Sarvastivada (2017); Maitreya (2018); paramitas and Sthaviravada/Lokottaravada (2020) |
| BPSC / BSSC | Hinayana vs Mahayana; Atisha; Bakhtiyar Khalji; Ambedkar 1956 |
| Mains | Causes of decline; Buddhism and India’s soft power |
With reference to the Bodhisattva concept, consider: 1. It is a central concept in Hinayana Buddhism. 2. A Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment. 3. A Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings. Which are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
- The Bodhisattva ideal is central to Mahayana, not Hinayana (whose ideal is the arhat).
Consider: 1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were sects of Jainism. 2. Sarvastivadins held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form. Which is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both (d) Neither
- Sautrantika and Sammitiya were Buddhist schools; statement 2 describes Sarvastivada correctly.
Consider: 1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. 2. The Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of the Mahasanghika sect. 3. The deification of the Buddha by the Mahasanghikas fostered Mahayana Buddhism. Which are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
- Sthaviravadins are the root of Theravada, not Mahayana.
Model question: “Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth but conquered Asia.” Explain. Points: Ashoka’s missions, Silk Road and sea trade; Nalanda and Vikramashila scholars in Tibet and China; internal decline (patronage, Sanskritisation, Tantra), Hindu absorption, Turkish destruction c. 1200; modern revival and soft power (Nalanda University, Buddhist circuit, return of the Piprahwa relics in 2025).
- Theravada: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand; Mahayana: East Asia; Vajrayana: Tibet, Bhutan, Ladakh.
- Avalokiteshvara = compassion; Manjushri = wisdom; Vajrapani = power.
- Question: Which goddess is important in Vajrayana? Answer: Tara.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
[UPSC level] Theravada Buddhism is mainly practised today in:
[BPSC level] How many schools (nikayas) of early Buddhism does tradition count?
[UPSC level] The term “Hinayana” was originally:
[BSSC pattern] Tara is an important goddess in:
[UPSC level] Which Bodhisattva–quality pair is correctly matched?
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Which goddess is important in Vajrayana?
Tara.