Mod 7: Famine, Schism and Scripture — Bhadrabahu and Sthulabhadra, the Jain Councils, the Agamas and the Sects
Concept
4.19 School Level — Famine and the great schism
🏫 School Level · NCERT Class 6–12 History · clear basics
Key terms and events:
- Chandragupta Maurya: a 12-year famine struck Magadha
- 12-year famine: struck Magadha
- Bhadrabahu: the last Shrutakevalin and traditional author of the Kalpasutra, led a group of monks south to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka);
- Shravanabelagola: Karnataka
- Sthulabhadra: began wearing white clothes
Jain tradition (Hemachandra’s Parishishtaparvan and later texts) says that about 160 years after Mahavira, in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, a 12-year famine struck Magadha. Bhadrabahu, the last Shrutakevalin and traditional author of the Kalpasutra, led a group of monks south to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka); Chandragupta went with him as a monk and died there by sallekhana. Monks who stayed in Magadha under Sthulabhadra began wearing white clothes.
| Point | Digambara | Shvetambara |
|---|---|---|
| Monks | Naked | White robes |
| Women and liberation | Must be reborn as men | Can attain moksha |
| 19th Tirthankara Mallinatha | Male | Female (Malli) |
| Mahavira married? | No | Yes, to Yashoda |
| Kevalin eats food? | No | Yes |
| Canon | Original canon lost; follow Shatkhandagama, Kundakunda | 45 Agamas (Vallabhi) |
Historian’s discovery. Read this topic against archaeology and early texts so names become places and dates, not rote lists.
Jain tradition (Hemachandra’s Parishishtaparvan and later texts) says that about 160 years after Mahavira, in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, a 12-year famine struck Magadha. Bhadrabahu, the last Shrutakevalin and traditional author of the Kalpasutra, led a group of monks south to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka); Chandragupta went with him as a monk and died there by sallekhana. Monks who stayed in Magadha under Sthulabhadra began wearing white clothes.
What caused the Digambara–Shvetambara schism in outline?
Model answer: A Magadhan famine tradition: Bhadrabahu’s southern migration versus Sthulabhadra’s Magadha stay; disputes over nudity, women’s liberation and scripture hardened into sects.
Account for the Digambara–Shvetambara schism in Jain tradition.
Model answer:
The great schism narrative ties Magadhan famine to lasting Digambara–Shvetambara differences.
- Bhadrabahu leads a migration south; Sthulabhadra remains — two leadership memories.
- Conflicts crystallise over nudity, possessions, women’s moksha, and authenticity of Agamas.
- Both claim Mahavira; neither should be described as ‘false Jainism’ in academic answers.
- Bihar remains sacred to both even after organisational divergence.
Cause (famine/migration memory) + issues (practice/scripture) + outcome (two communities).
Further development. A UPSC-ready answer should move from definitions to causation and consequence. Relate the theme to the middle Ganga / Bihar setting wherever the sources allow, and avoid one-line listings without explanation.
Supporting facts to weave into the argument:
- 12-year famine under Chandragupta: Bhadrabahu to Shravanabelagola; Sthulabhadra stays.
- Digambara (sky-clad) vs Shvetambara (white-clad); women’s liberation, Mallinatha, Mahavira’s marriage.
Quick anchors examiners expect: Question: Who led the Jain monks south? Answer: Bhadrabahu..
Significance. In conclusion, the question “Account for the Digambara–Shvetambara schism in Jain tradition.” is best answered as a connected historical argument: state the core claim, support it with Bihar-centred evidence, and close with why the issue matters for ancient Indian polity, economy or religion.
| Point | Digambara | Shvetambara |
|---|---|---|
| Monks | Naked | White robes |
| Women and liberation | Must be reborn as men | Can attain moksha |
| 19th Tirthankara Mallinatha | Male | Female (Malli) |
| Mahavira married? | No | Yes, to Yashoda |
| Kevalin eats food? | No | Yes |
| Canon | Original canon lost; follow Shatkhandagama, Kundakunda | 45 Agamas (Vallabhi) |
- 12-year famine under Chandragupta: Bhadrabahu to Shravanabelagola; Sthulabhadra stays.
- Digambara (sky-clad) vs Shvetambara (white-clad); women’s liberation, Mallinatha, Mahavira’s marriage.
- Question: Who led the Jain monks south? Answer: Bhadrabahu.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
Question 4: Which Jain Acharya led the southern migration to Shravanabelagola, founding the Digambara tradition?
[RAS 1999] Under whose leadership did the Shvetambara creed of Jainism emerge?
[School] “Digambara” means:
[BPSC level] Which Maurya emperor went to Shravanabelagola with Bhadrabahu, according to Jain tradition?
[UPSC level] According to the Digambaras, which of the following is true?
[BPSC level] The Kalpasutra is traditionally attributed to:
[UPSC level] Which Shvetambara belief about the 19th Tirthankara differs from the Digambara belief?
[BPSC level] The text that tells the story of Bhadrabahu, Sthulabhadra and Chandragupta is Hemachandra’s:
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Who led the Jain monks south?
Bhadrabahu.Concept
4.20 Transition Level — Councils, Agamas and sects
🔄 Transition Level · From school basics to deeper historical detail
Key terms and events:
- 14 Purvas: “earlier texts”
- vachanas: “recitations”) were held
- Drishtivada: contained the 14 Purvas
- Sthanakvasi: rooted in Lonka Shah’s 15th-c. reform, organised in the 17th c.
- Shvetambara Terapanthi: 1760, Acharya Bhikshu
- Yapaniya: a Karnataka sect mixing both traditions (naked monks, but liberation for women); extinct by the 15th c
Mahavira’s teaching was memorised and passed on by mouth. The oldest layer, the 14 Purvas (“earlier texts”), was gradually forgotten. To save the canon, councils (vachanas, “recitations”) were held.
The lost 12th Anga.
The 12th Anga, Drishtivada, contained the 14 Purvas. At the Pataliputra council no one but Bhadrabahu knew them, so Sthulabhadra was sent to Nepal to learn them; tradition says he learned all 14 but was allowed to teach only 10. The Drishtivada was later lost entirely.
Later sects.
- Sthanakvasi (rooted in Lonka Shah’s 15th-c. reform, organised in the 17th c.) — Shvetambaras who reject image worship and worship in halls (sthanakas).
- Shvetambara Terapanthi (1760, Acharya Bhikshu) — a single acharya leads; Acharya Tulsi began the Anuvrat movement (1949).
- Yapaniya — a Karnataka sect mixing both traditions (naked monks, but liberation for women); extinct by the 15th c.
| Group | Number | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Angas | 11 (+ lost 12th) | Acharanga, Sutrakritanga, Bhagavati (Vyakhyaprajnapti), Upasakadasha |
| Upangas | 12 | Aupapatika, Rajaprashniya |
| Prakirnakas | 10 | Miscellaneous texts |
| Chedasutras | 6 | Monastic discipline; Kalpasutra is part of one |
| Mulasutras | 4 | Uttaradhyayana, Dashavaikalika |
| Chulikasutras | 2 | Nandi, Anuyogadvara |
Historian’s discovery. Read this topic against archaeology and early texts so names become places and dates, not rote lists.
- Sthanakvasi (rooted in Lonka Shah’s 15th-c. reform, organised in the 17th c.) — Shvetambaras who reject image worship and worship in halls (sthanakas).
- Shvetambara Terapanthi (1760, Acharya Bhikshu) — a single acharya leads; Acharya Tulsi began the Anuvrat movement (1949).
- Yapaniya — a Karnataka sect mixing both traditions (naked monks, but liberation for women); extinct by the 15th c.
Where were early Jain councils associated, and what are Agamas?
Model answer: Pataliputra and later councils are linked with compiling/reciting scripture; Agamas are the Shvetambara canonical texts (traditionally 45), with Digambaras holding many originals lost.
Write a note on Jain councils and the Agamas.
Model answer:
Councils and Agamas are Jainism’s scriptural constitution story.
- Pataliputra council tradition associated with collecting teachings after crisis.
- Shvetambara 45 Agamas vs Digambara view of loss of original Angas (including debates on the 12th).
- Later sects (e.g. Sthanakvasi, Terapanth) reform ritual and image worship inside Shvetambara worlds.
- Scripture disputes are also identity disputes — handle neutrally.
Name council place, canon claim, and sectarian consequence.
Further development. A UPSC-ready answer should move from definitions to causation and consequence. Relate the theme to the middle Ganga / Bihar setting wherever the sources allow, and avoid one-line listings without explanation.
Supporting facts to weave into the argument:
- 1st council: Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra (c. 300 BCE); 2nd: Vallabhi, Devardhi (453/466 CE; exams 512 CE).
- Canon: 14 Purvas (lost) → 12 Angas, 12 Upangas … 45 Agamas in Ardhamagadhi.
- Sects: Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi, Yapaniya.
Quick anchors examiners expect: Question: Where was the second Jain council held? Answer: Vallabhi (Gujarat), under Devardhi Kshamashramana..
Significance. In conclusion, the question “Write a note on Jain councils and the Agamas.” is best answered as a connected historical argument: state the core claim, support it with Bihar-centred evidence, and close with why the issue matters for ancient Indian polity, economy or religion.
| Group | Number | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Angas | 11 (+ lost 12th) | Acharanga, Sutrakritanga, Bhagavati (Vyakhyaprajnapti), Upasakadasha |
| Upangas | 12 | Aupapatika, Rajaprashniya |
| Prakirnakas | 10 | Miscellaneous texts |
| Chedasutras | 6 | Monastic discipline; Kalpasutra is part of one |
| Mulasutras | 4 | Uttaradhyayana, Dashavaikalika |
| Chulikasutras | 2 | Nandi, Anuyogadvara |
- 1st council: Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra (c. 300 BCE); 2nd: Vallabhi, Devardhi (453/466 CE; exams 512 CE).
- Canon: 14 Purvas (lost) → 12 Angas, 12 Upangas … 45 Agamas in Ardhamagadhi.
- Sects: Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi, Yapaniya.
- Question: Where was the second Jain council held? Answer: Vallabhi (Gujarat), under Devardhi Kshamashramana.
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
Question 3: Where was the First Jain Council held in the 4th Century BCE under the chairmanship of Sthulabhadra?
Question 4: The most ancient canonical texts of Jainism are designated as:
[BPSC level] The second Jain council at Vallabhi was presided over by:
[BSSC pattern] The Jain canonical texts are written mainly in:
[UPSC 2018] The “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to:
[UPPCS 2010] The Yapaniya sect was related to:
[BPSC level] The lost 12th Anga, which contained the 14 Purvas, is the:
[UPSC level] How many Agamas make up the Shvetambara Murtipujaka canon?
[UPSC level] The Digambara sacred text “Shatkhandagama” was composed by:
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Where was the second Jain council held?
Vallabhi (Gujarat), under Devardhi Kshamashramana.Concept
4.21 Advanced Level — Schism, Agamas and deep reading
🎯 Advanced Level · Short and long questions with full topic facts
Key terms and events:
- Bhadrabahu & Sthulabhadra: famine-era leaders — south migration vs Magadha stay (traditional narrative ~160 years after Mahavira, Chandragupta’s reign).
- Digambara / Shvetambara: nudity vs white robes; women and moksha; canon views; Mallinatha gender; Mahavira’s marriage — classic contrast set.
- Pataliputra council / vachana: recitation to save oral teaching; Purvas partly lost.
- Agamas / Vallabhi: Shvetambara 45; Digambara hold many originals lost (Shatkhandagama, Kundakunda lineages).
- Drishtivada / 14 Purvas: lost twelfth Anga tradition.
- Later sects: Sthanakvasi (no images); Terapanth; Yapaniya — reform and regional mixes.
Schism history is Magadha’s crisis memory: famine, migration, and disputes over practice and scripture. Advanced answers separate traditional narrative from doctrinal outcomes still visible today.
UPSC Sthanakvasi-type questions and BPSC Pataliputra/Bhadrabahu items sit on this module — define sects by practice (images, dress, women’s liberation), not by insults.
Famine narrative. Bhadrabahu to Shravanabelagola (Chandragupta as monk in tradition); Sthulabhadra remains; clothing and canon disputes harden.
| Issue | Digambara | Shvetambara |
|---|---|---|
| Monk’s dress | Nudity as ideal | White robes |
| Women’s moksha | Generally need male rebirth | Possible in female body |
| 19th Tirthankara | Male | Female (Malli) |
| Canon | Original Angas largely lost | 45 Agamas (Vallabhi tradition) |
| Mahavira married? | No | Yes (Yashoda) in tradition |
Councils and loss. Oral Purvas fade; Pataliputra recitation; Sthulabhadra–Bhadrabahu learning story; Vallabhi redaction for Shvetambaras. Later Sthanakvasi/Terapanth reforms show scripture disputes continue into early modern religion.
Historian’s discovery. Sectarian difference is also a source-criticism problem: each community preserves Mahavira differently. Academic writing reports both canons’ claims and uses archaeology/epigraphy elsewhere to ground Magadhan Jain presence without picking a ‘true church’.
Famine memory → organisational split → canon politics → living sects. That chain is the Advanced story of Module 7, still tied to Bihar’s Pataliputra council tradition.
Name one key difference Digambara and Shvetambara hold on monks and on women.
Model answer: Digambaras require nudity for full monkhood and generally deny that women can attain liberation in a female body; Shvetambaras allow white robes and affirm women’s liberation potential.
Distinguish Digambara and Shvetambara on monkhood and women’s liberation.
Model answer:
Digambara–Shvetambara contrasts are high-frequency prelim and mains material.
- Dress: nudity vs white robes for ideal monkhood.
- Women’s liberation: generally denied in female body (Digambara) vs affirmed (Shvetambara).
- Canon: Agamas accepted (Shvetambara) vs many lost (Digambara).
- Icons and worship styles also diverge in later practice — mention briefly if space.
Tabulate two or three crisp contrasts; avoid sectarian judgment.
Further development. A UPSC-ready answer should move from definitions to causation and consequence. Relate the theme to the middle Ganga / Bihar setting wherever the sources allow, and avoid one-line listings without explanation.
Supporting facts to weave into the argument:
- Anuvrat movement 1949, Acharya Tulsi; Acharya Vidyasagar took sallekhana in 2024.
Quick anchors examiners expect: Question: Which sect rejects image worship? Answer: Sthanakvasi (and Shvetambara Terapanthi)..
Significance. In conclusion, the question “Distinguish Digambara and Shvetambara on monkhood and women’s liberation.” is best answered as a connected historical argument: state the core claim, support it with Bihar-centred evidence, and close with why the issue matters for ancient Indian polity, economy or religion.
Solved questions from previous exams for this module, with the answer and a short explanation of why it is correct.
| Exam | What it asks from this module |
|---|---|
| UPSC | Sthanakvasi (2018); Jain councils; Kalpasutra |
| BPSC | First council at Pataliputra; Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta |
| State PSC | Yapaniya (UPPCS 2010); Sthulabhadra (RAS 1999); Vallabhi under Devardhi |
With reference to the religious history of India, “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to: (a) Buddhism (b) Jainism (c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism
- A non-image-worshipping branch of the Shvetambaras.
- First Jain council: Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra; second: Vallabhi, Devardhi Kshamashramana. Do not confuse with Buddhist councils (Rajagriha, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashmir).
- Bhadrabahu went south (Digambara roots); Sthulabhadra stayed (Shvetambara roots).
- Terapanthis exist in both traditions.
Model question: Discuss how a famine in Magadha led to a lasting division in Jainism. Points: 12-year famine; migration with Chandragupta; Shravanabelagola inscriptions (c. 600 CE) as evidence; Pataliputra council; clothing and women’s liberation; final split 1st c. CE; historians’ caution about the legend.
- Anuvrat movement 1949, Acharya Tulsi; Acharya Vidyasagar took sallekhana in 2024.
- Question: Which sect rejects image worship? Answer: Sthanakvasi (and Shvetambara Terapanthi).
MCQs
Answer this question, then use Next.
[BPSC level] The Anuvrat movement (1949) was started by:
[UPSC level] The Sthanakvasi sect arose out of the reform movement of:
[BSSC pattern] Which pair is correct?
[UPSC level] Which statement about Acharya Vidyasagar (died 2024) is correct?
One-liners
Write your answer, then submit to see the correct answer.
Which sect rejects image worship?
Sthanakvasi (and Shvetambara Terapanthi).